Old Masters Palette: Caravaggio — His Baroque Palette and Technique

Caravaggio’s Mastery in Technique and Palette: A Fusion of Ground Preparation and Color Application

Caravaggio, a quintessential figure of the Baroque era, not only revolutionized the artistic world with his dramatic chiaroscuro and a distinctive color palette but also demonstrated a profound understanding of the relationship between ground preparation and color application.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (born 1571, Milan or Caravaggio; died 18 July 1610, Porto Ercole) was the most radical painter in post-Tridentine Italy. In his religious and mythological compositions, he mocked classical Roman tradition by depicting his models in a naturalistic, unidealized style. In this article, we examine how ground preparation played an important role in his painting technique, as did the colors he used on his palette.

The Lombard Roots of Caravaggio’s Realism

Caravaggio’s extraordinary realism didn’t emerge from a vacuum—it was deeply rooted in his formative experiences as a young artist in Lombardy. The region’s rich artistic environment, known for its emphasis on naturalism and close observation of everyday life, left an indelible mark on the developing painter. Under the tutelage of Simone Peterzano, Caravaggio was encouraged to study directly from nature rather than relying solely on idealized conventions. This early exposure to the unvarnished realities of the world shaped his later work, where figures pulse with tangible vitality and the mundane is elevated to the dramatic. The seeds planted in his Lombard training would eventually blossom into the raw, immediate realism for which Caravaggio became renowned.

Life on the Edge: Personal Turmoil Reflected in Caravaggio’s Canvas

Caravaggio’s art cannot be separated from the tumultuous path of his own life. Early on, his modest circumstances shaped a body of work that was both intimate and direct—he often painted those closest to him, transforming everyday scenes and familiar faces into dramatic narratives that pulsed with authenticity.

His trajectory changed dramatically after he secured the pivotal commission for the Contarelli Chapel in 1599 through the patronage of Cardinal del Monte. This moment marked his breakthrough into the Roman art world and thrust him into a flurry of prestigious religious commissions. Despite a reputation for volatility and frequent clashes with the law, Caravaggio’s popularity soared. His compositions, once cautious and tentative, blossomed into bold theatrical arrangements, underscoring both his growing confidence and the escalating complexity of his world.

But Caravaggio’s personal life grew increasingly fraught. By 1606, a violent encounter forced him to flee Rome as a fugitive—a chapter of his life spent wandering from Naples to Malta and Sicily. With darkness and uncertainty shadowing every move, his paintings became an expressive mirror of his turmoil. The subjects grew weightier, the palettes deeper and more somber. Religious themes predominated, rendered with a raw realism that reflected the artist’s own confrontation with mortality and isolation. Faces became more worn, compositions more stark, and light more dramatic—every brushstroke a testament to a life lived perpetually on the verge.

Shifting Subjects and Evolving Themes in Caravaggio’s Oeuvre

Caravaggio’s journey through the art world was marked by dynamic changes in both the subjects he depicted and the emotional resonance of his works. In his earliest Roman period, arriving destitute in 1592, he trained his meticulous eye on humble genre scenes—self-portraits, modest still lifes, and studies of everyday people. These canvases often featured neutral backgrounds and a focus on lifelike inanimate details, though his grasp of proportion was still developing.

With the pivotal patronage of Cardinal del Monte from 1595 onward, Caravaggio’s subject matter shifted perceptibly. The newfound backing opened doors to Rome’s elite market, leading to commissions that favored religious narratives and sensual, androgynous youths. His compositions became more populated and layered, culminating in increasingly dramatic, shadow-laden scenes. The Contarelli Chapel commission in 1599 proved transformative: Caravaggio delivered arresting visions of St. Matthew’s life, cementing his reputation—and controversy—in one bold series.

As the 17th century dawned, Caravaggio’s professional ascent continued apace despite persistent personal tumult. He tackled ever more ambitious biblical and mythological themes, filling his canvases with larger casts and orchestral arrangements of light and shadow. Early missteps in structure and proportion gave way to assured, complex storytelling.

Yet after 1606, his life and art plunged into turbulence. Forced to flee Rome under threat of execution, Caravaggio wandered—Naples, Malta, Sicily—in perpetual exile. His later works reflect the gravity of these years. Subjects turned almost exclusively to religious devotion and introspective portraiture, rendered with a somber, at times haunting, intensity. Gloom and psychological depth dominated his palette and themes, making these last works some of the most emotionally charged in Western art.

The Evolution of Ground Preparation

The evolution of canvas supports on strainers and stretchers in the 17th century highlighted the importance of ground preparation in oil painting. Artists, including Caravaggio, perfected their methods by combining priming and preparation into a single, colored oil layer. This layer, often a mix of chalk, linseed oil, and colored pigments, known as mestica, became an integral part of their technique. Caravaggio’s method involved a dark ground preparation, typically in red or brown, which enhanced the depth and chromaticity of colors like blue, green, or white when applied on top. Over time, this approach intensified the tonal contrasts in his works, contributing to his signature dramatic effect. However, the increasing transparency of oil paint, over time, can cause the painting over dark grounds to absorb half-tones and reinforce shadows, exacerbating the tonal contrasts of the painting.

It is frequently mentioned that Caravaggio worked intentionally with the color of the ground when creating his canvas paintings. While gray grounds can be found in some of Caravaggio’s early paintings in Rome, most of Caravaggio’s paintings have a red-brown, somewhat translucent ground that he came to utilize in a very particular manner; he left the ground visible in the half-tones.

After the mid-1500s, it became increasingly usual to find canvas paintings featuring colorful primers or grounds blended with earth or other opaque pigments. Although these grounds somewhat diminish the highest level of luminosity achievable through the use of transparent colors over a white background, they establish a mid-tone foundation. This foundation enables artists to adeptly navigate both the lighter and darker values in their work. The result is a swift three-dimensional effect achieved with minimal brushwork, showcasing pronounced chiaroscuro effects that were highly favored in that era.

The Supper at Emmaus, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 1601, oil and tempera on canvas, 141 × 196.2 cm  (55.5 in × 77.2 in), National Gallery, London, NG172

Caravaggio’s Direct Approach to Painting

Contrary to common practice, Caravaggio reportedly painted directly in color, foregoing preliminary drawings. X-ray investigations revealing frequent pentimentos support this. He often used freehand incisions on the preparation layer to mark the cardinal points of his composition, as observed in various works. This technique likely evolved from transferring drawings using cartoons, which was nearly exclusive to Caravaggio. His choice of a dark, reddish-brown preparation is a notable characteristic, which he sometimes allowed to shine through the painting, adding depth and intensity to his works.

Recent studies, such as those on The Supper at Emmaus, reveal that Caravaggio may have used preliminary graphic outlines, contradicting earlier beliefs. His process involved creating a graphic trace with burnt umber, over which he painted with rapid, confident brushstrokes, integrating the sketch and painting in a singular process. This approach, known as “impasto a corpo,” involved building the painting with the paste of the color rather than in layers.

Caravaggio’s Reluctance to Paint Frescoes

While many of Caravaggio’s Baroque contemporaries secured their reputations and livelihoods painting monumental frescoes on church ceilings and public walls, Caravaggio himself steadfastly avoided the medium. He devoted his entire career to oil on canvas, shunning fresco painting altogether. The precise motivation behind this decision remains elusive. Some speculate that Caravaggio may have lacked training in the meticulous, rapidly executed techniques fresco demands. Others suggest it was yet another example of his penchant for defying convention—Caravaggio was, after all, notorious for challenging both artistic tradition and social norms.

Whatever the reason, his choice to work exclusively in oil on canvas became part of his signature. The freedom and subtlety of oil paint suited his naturalistic, dynamic style—features that would have been nearly impossible to achieve with the unforgiving and fast-drying medium of fresco. This deliberate focus allowed Caravaggio to push the possibilities of oil, capturing fleeting expressions and dramatic lighting that defined his revolutionary approach.

Technique of Overlapping and Detailing

Caravaggio’s unique method of constructing his paintings involved executing figures as a whole, starting from the background and then adding foreground elements. This technique resulted in an overlap of elements, such as hair over foreheads or arms under sleeves. His rapid final drafts often merged with the initial sketches, with occasional egg tempera highlights added on top of fresh oil layers. Despite the energetic brushwork, Caravaggio maintained an extraordinary attention to detail, often using a very thin brush for finer elements.

As noted by Pietro Bellori in “Le vite de’ pittori, scultori et architetti moderni,” Caravaggio used every capability of his brush, working with such pride that he left the canvas priming in mid-tones. The painter then revisited the reddish preparation with a light brown or black glaze, creating a dark background that sometimes overlapped the contours of the figures.

Co-Extensive Space: Drawing the Viewer In

A hallmark of Caravaggio’s compositions is his remarkable ability to extend the action beyond the confines of the canvas, pulling the viewer directly into the drama. In works like The Supper at Emmaus, the viewer is not merely an observer but almost a participant—practically a fifth figure at the table. The outstretched arms of the apostle on the right reach forward, breaking the picture plane into our space, while a precariously balanced basket of fruit seems ready to tumble from the table’s edge, threatening to land at our feet. This co-extensive spatial approach heightens the immediacy and emotional intensity of his scenes, making the narrative feel tangible and present.

Caravaggio’s technical choices—overlapping forms, merging sketches with paint, and engaging the viewer’s space—combine to create a vivid sense of depth and involvement. This mastery of both painterly technique and dramatic spatial illusion became one of the defining features of his revolutionary style.

Madonna of Loreto or Pilgrim's Madonna [Italian: Madonna dei Pellegrini], Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, c. 1604-1606, oil on canvas, 260 cm × 150 cm (100 in × 59 in), Sant’Agostino, Rome

Controversies Surrounding Caravaggio’s Religious Art

Caravaggio’s depiction of sacred subjects did not sail smoothly through the Roman art world; instead, it stirred remarkable debate and consternation. At the heart of this tumult was his uncompromising realism. Rather than idealizing his figures, Caravaggio painted saints and the Holy Family with the same naturalistic precision and unvarnished detail he gave a fruit basket—muddy feet, worn hands, and every wrinkle or blemish unapologetically displayed. This deliberate choice shattered expectations: viewers were used to ethereal beauty befitting religious icons, not the lived-in faces of market vendors.

His Madonna dei Palafrenieri, for instance, drew particular ire. Instead of distancing the Madonna from the world, Caravaggio placed her amidst lifelike pilgrims—barefoot, weary, and recognizably human. Critics suggested this lack of decorum bordered on sacrilegious. A secretary to a cardinal even went so far as to declare the painting “vulgar” and accused its maker of being estranged from any “good thought.”

Such dissent was not solely about taste; it reflected a wider anxiety. In an era shaped by the Council of Trent’s call for art that moved believers, Caravaggio’s raw authenticity provoked both admiration and reproach. Some celebrated the invitation to see the sacred in the every day, while others recoiled, feeling that the sacred had been sullied by proximity to the street. Regardless of whether one took delight or offense, Caravaggio’s work was impossible to ignore, sparking conversations that echoed through churches, studios, and salons across Rome.

Everyday Reality in Caravaggio’s Art

Caravaggio’s distinct approach was further amplified by his bold decision to draw inspiration directly from the streets of Rome. Instead of idealized or ethereal figures, his models were often ordinary people—laborers, neighbors, and even those living on the margins of society. With a keen eye for authenticity, Caravaggio painted every imperfection, from calloused feet and soiled fingernails to the weathered textures of fruit and flesh.

This unvarnished observation set him dramatically apart from his contemporaries. Where other Baroque artists might smooth over flaws to evoke sanctity or nobility, Caravaggio welcomed every bruise and blemish into his compositions. Vulgarity, in the eyes of some critics of the era, became a hallmark of his immediacy and honesty. The result was a vivid sense of presence—viewers could almost smell the earth on a pilgrim’s heel or feel the roughness of an apple’s skin.

While not universally celebrated in his day and sometimes even condemned for irreverence, Caravaggio’s unwavering dedication to truth in detail forged a new, striking visual language. It was a language not of distant saints but of palpable, living humanity.

The Role and Reception of Realism in Caravaggio’s Works

Caravaggio’s embrace of realism was nothing short of revolutionary—and, for many of his contemporaries, deeply unsettling. Whereas the Council of Trent had encouraged artists to abandon Mannerist extravagance in favor of more natural representation, Caravaggio’s dedication to lifelike detail vaulted past mere suggestion and plunged headlong into gritty reality.

In his paintings, nothing was airbrushed or idealized. Caravaggio was notorious for including every imperfection: the grime beneath a laborer’s fingernails, the weathered soles of pilgrims’ feet, and even the bruises and blemishes on a fruit dish. Saints and Madonnas were not elevated to porcelain smoothness—they became real people, touched by the dust and toil of daily life.

This uncompromising naturalism drew sharp criticism from the guardians of religious decorum. High-ranking patrons and church officials often recoiled, sometimes denouncing his work as unworthy—too vulgar, too common, even blasphemous. The earthy humanity Caravaggio infused in his sacred subjects stood in stark contrast to the polished, aloof figures typical of earlier sacred art. Some saw it as a bit too much of Rome in their Rome—too close for comfort.

Yet, Caravaggio’s commitment to painting from life had roots in his early training in Lombardy, a region steeped in naturalist traditions. His teacher, Simone Peterzano, likely encouraged this approach. Art historian Helen Langdon, for instance, has traced the mature Caravaggio’s radical realism to formative years spent learning to observe—really observe—the world around him: not only the grace of youth but the textures of lived experience.

In this fidelity to the seen world, Caravaggio’s realism became both his signature and his scandal—capturing the divine not by escaping the ordinary but by transforming it.

Caravaggio’s Palette

Although “chiaroscuro” was practiced long before the 17th century, Caravaggio made the technique definitive, darkening the shadows and transfixing the subject in a blinding shaft of light. He achieved this effect with a limited palette typical of 17th-century painters: iron oxide earth colors (red ocher, yellow ocher, umber), a few mineral pigments (vermilion, lead-tin yellow, lead white), carbon or bone black, and verdigris. Earth pigments predominated, and brighter colors were always veiled.

Caravaggio’s palette, which had become significantly darker in his last works in Rome (such as the Madonna di Loreto altarpiece in Sant’Agostino of 1605–1606), now restricts itself almost exclusively to a simple, nearly monochromatic array of dark earth tones and silvery whites. The occasional flash of red or yellow nearly jumps off the canvas. Caravaggio’s brushwork is now noticeably looser, and his models—poor, rough types culled from the Neapolitan streets—are more realistically described than ever before.

Caravaggio’s palette was a testament to his pioneering approach, comprising a relatively limited yet highly impactful range of colors. Central to his palette were earth tones, which were the bedrock of the Baroque school’s inclination towards realism and emotional depth. His selection of pigments included:

• Lead white

• Lead-tin yellow

• Yellow ocher

• Verdigris

• Vermilion

• Red ocher

• Umber

• Bone black

The Calling of Saint Matthew [Italian: Vocazione di San Matteo], Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 1599–1600, oil on canvas, 322 cm × 340 cm (127 in × 130 in), San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome

Technique and Style: The Power of Chiaroscuro

Caravaggio’s signature technique was chiaroscuro, which he employed with unrivaled mastery. This technique involved a stark contrast between light and dark, creating a sense of volume and depth that brought his subjects to life. His adept use of shadows, often deepened with umber and carbon black, was counterbalanced by striking highlights achieved with lead white and lead-tin yellow. This interplay of light and shadow is vividly illustrated in works like The Calling of Saint Matthew, where the divine light dramatically illuminates the scene.

The Entombment of Christ [Italian: Deposizione], Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 1603–1604, oil on canvas, 300 cm × 203 cm (120 in × 80 in), Pinacoteca Vaticana, Vatican City

In his later works, Caravaggio’s palette became even more restrained, with a notable emphasis on dark earth tones and silvery whites. This evolution is evident in paintings such as The Entombment of Christ, where the somber hues reflect a deeper naturalism and an unidealized portrayal of the human condition. His brushwork in these later pieces became looser, further enhancing the naturalistic quality of his paintings.

Influence and Legacy

Caravaggio’s impact on the Baroque school cannot be overstated. His ability to convey emotion and drama through a selective palette and masterful lighting set a new precedent in art. His works influenced a generation of artists, the “Caravaggisti,” who emulated his style and techniques. His fusion of theatricality with realism paved the way for the emotive and dynamic character that defined the Baroque movement.

Caravaggio’s Influence on Rubens, Velázquez, and Rembrandt

Caravaggio’s unflinching realism and ability to imbue sacred scenes with genuine human emotion left a lasting mark on artists across Europe. Painters like Rubens, Velázquez, and Rembrandt drew directly from his approach, adopting his dramatic use of light to heighten narrative tension and bring their figures to life. Caravaggio’s willingness to portray saints and biblical subjects alongside ordinary people—characterized by their expressive gestures and natural imperfections—encouraged these later masters to explore new depths of relatability and psychological complexity.

Rubens infused his compositions with dynamic movement and intensity reminiscent of Caravaggio’s theatrical lighting. Velázquez drew inspiration from the honesty and immediacy of Caravaggio’s figures, which influenced his own powerful portraits and genre scenes. Rembrandt, renowned for his luminous self-portraits and biblical narratives, harnessed the expressive power of chiaroscuro, channeling Caravaggio’s dramatic contrasts to achieve a profound sense of presence and humanity.

Through his innovative use of color and light, Caravaggio transformed the landscape of 17th-century painting. His legacy, marked by a distinctive palette and a profound understanding of human emotion, continues to inspire and captivate audiences, making him a pivotal figure in the history of Western art.

Reception Among Critics and Contemporaries

Caravaggio’s innovative style and daring realism did not go unnoticed among his peers—or his detractors. In his own time, his paintings sparked lively debate and outright controversy. Many traditionalists viewed his naturalistic depictions and arresting chiaroscuro as shockingly unrefined, even bordering on sacrilege. His choice to portray saints and biblical figures with the grit and emotional intensity of ordinary people was seen by some as a radical—and, at times, indecorous—departure from accepted conventions.

Not all reviews were glowing. Nicolas Poussin, one of the era’s most respected classicists, is said to have dismissed Caravaggio’s work with characteristic severity, reportedly remarking that its “ugliness” could damn its creator. Church officials and critics, scandalized by the raw humanity in paintings like the Madonna dei Palafrenieri, accused him of irreverence and even impiety, unsettled by the sheer presence of streetwise models and palpable emotion on sacred canvases.

Giovan Pietro Bellori, the influential 17th-century biographer and critic, observed that Caravaggio’s shadowy palette mirrored the artist’s intense persona—earthy, dramatic, and uncompromising. Caravaggio’s refusal to idealize and his insistence on painting from life challenged the more polished, academic ideals of his contemporaries.

Yet, despite the criticism—or perhaps because of it—Caravaggio’s methods struck a chord with a new generation. His ability to imbue biblical scenes with real, lived experience gave the stories fresh immediacy and relatability, inspiring luminaries including Rubens, Velázquez, and Rembrandt. The passionate debates about his approach only cemented his reputation as both a revolutionary and a master, forever transforming the trajectory of Western art.

Modern Equivalents of the Colors on Caravaggio’s Palette

* Verdigris is not a permanent color that darkens and becomes brown over time. We suggest viridian as a reasonable substitute for verdigris.

** Vermilion is not available at the time of this writing. Cadmium Red Light Oil Paint is a good substitute for vermilion.

Notes

The term primer is used in the traditional sense to indicate the preparation of a surface to be painted with chalk or gypsum and animal collagen glue. This is to distinguish it from grounds or mestica, which are characterized by the presence of an oily component. Some early sources tend to use the terms “imprimitura” and “mestica” as synonyms, as documented by the references between the two entries in the vocabulary of Filippo Baldinucci (1681).

Derived from “mesticare,” to mix, in artistic literature between the 17th and 18th centuries, the term “mestica” was generally used as a synonym for preparation. In more recent times, it has been identified with a colored coating characterized by oil, clay, and pigments; it is quite distinct from the most ancient gypsum and glue preparation. In particular, the use of the mestica finds its meaning in the need for a less porous preparation for applying oil colors.

Giorgio Vasari (1550) defines mestica as a “compound of ground earths that is placed on the canvas or board to be painted,” and Filippo Baldinucci (1681) a “compound of different earth and colors ground with walnut or linseed oil to be applied to the canvases or panels you want to paint. “

References

David Hradil, Janka Hradilová, Giancarlo Lanterna, Monica Galeotti, Katarína Holcová, Victory Jaques, Petr Bezdička. (2020) “Clay and alunite-rich materials in painting grounds of prominent Italian masters – Caravaggio and Mattia Preti,” Applied Clay Science, Volume 185, 2020, 105412, ISSN 0169-1317, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2019.105412 (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169131719304703)

Christiansen, Keith. (2014). "Caravaggio and “L'esempio davanti del naturale”. The Art Bulletin. 68. 421-445. 10.1080/00043079.1986.10788361.